Stuart Wade, Envision Virtual Tours The second-largest and most developed of Georgia's barrier islands, St. Simons is approximately twelve miles long and nearly three miles wide at its widest stretch (roughly the size of Manhattan Island in New York). The island is located in Glynn County on Georgia's coast and lies east of Brunswick (the seat of Glynn County), south of Little St. Simons Island and the Hampton River, and north of Jekyll Island. The resort community of Sea Island is separated from St. Simons on the east by the Black Banks River. Known for its oak tree canopies and historic landmarks, St. Simons is both a tourist destination and, according to the 2010 U.S. census, home to 12,743 residents. Early History The earliest St. Simons Island Village record of human habitation on the island dates to the Late Archaic Period, about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. Remnants of shell rings left behind by Native Americans from this era survive on many of the barrier islands, including St. Simons. Centuries later, during the period known by historians as the chiefdom era, the Guale Indians established a chiefdom centered on St. Catherines Island and used St. Simons as their hunting and fishing grounds. By 1500 the Guale had established a permanent village of about 200 people on St. Simons, which they called Guadalquini. Beginning in 1568, the Spanish attempted to create missions along the Georgia coast. Catholic missions were the primary means by which Georgia's indigenous Native American chiefdoms were assimilated into the Spanish colonial system along the northern frontier of greater Spanish Florida. In the 1600s St. Simons became home to two Spanish missions: San Buenaventura de Guadalquini, on the southern tip of the island, and Santo Domingo de Asao (or Asajo), on the northern tip. Located on the inland side of the island were the pagan refugee villages of San Simón, the island's namesake, and Ocotonico. In 1684 pirate raids left the missions and villages largely abandoned. Colonial History As Fort Frederica early as 1670, with Great Britain's establishment of the colony of Carolina and its expansion into Georgia territory, Spanish rule was threatened by the English. The Georgia coast was considered "debatable land" by England and Spain, even though Spain had fully retreated from St. Simons by 1702. Thirty-one years later General James Edward Oglethorpe founded the English settlement of Savannah. In 1736 he established Fort Frederica, named after the heir to the British throne, Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, on the west side of St. Simons Island to protect Savannah and the Carolinas from the Spanish threat. Between 1736 and 1749 Fort Frederica was the hub of British military operations along the Georgia frontier. A town of the same name grew up around the fort and was of great importance to the new colony. By 1740 Frederica's population was 1,000. In 1736 the congregation of what would become Christ Church was organized within Fort Frederica as a mission of the Church of England. Charles Wesley led the first services. In 1742 Britain's decisive victory over Spain in the Battle of Bloody Marsh, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, ended the Spanish threat to the Georgia coast. When the British regimen disbanded in 1749, most of the townspeople relocated to the mainland. Fort Frederica went into decline and, except for a short time of prosperity during the 1760s and 1770s under the leadership of merchant James Spalding, never fully recovered. Today the historic citadel's tabby ruins are maintained by the National Park Service. Plantation Era By the start of the American Revolution (1775-83), Fort Frederica was obsolete, and St. Simons was left largely uninhabited as most of its residents joined the patriot army. Besides hosting a small Georgia naval victory on the Fort Frederica River, providing guns from its famous fort for use at Fort Morris in Sunbury, and serving as an arena for pillaging by privateers and British soldiers, the island played almost no role in the war. Following the war, many of the townspeople, their businesses destroyed, turned to agriculture. The island was transformed into fourteen cotton plantations after acres of live oak trees were cleared for farm land and used for building American warships, including the famous USS Constitution, or "Old Ironsides." Although rice was the predominant crop along the neighboring Altamaha River, St. Simons was known for its production of long-staple cotton, which soon came to be known as Sea Island cotton. Between Ebos Landing the 1780s and the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65), St. Simons's plantation culture flourished. The saline atmosphere and the availability of cheap slave labor proved an ideal combination for the cultivation of Sea Island cotton. In 1803 a group of Ebo slaves who survived the Middle Passage and arrived on the west side of St. Simons staged a rebellion and drowned themselves. The sacred site is known today as Ebos Landing. One of the largest owners of land and slaves on St. Simons was Pierce Butler, master of Hampton Point Plantation, located on the northern end of the island. By 1793 Butler owned more than 500 slaves, who cultivated 800 acres of cotton on St. Simons and 300 acres of rice on Butler's Island in the Altamaha River delta. Butler's grandson, Pierce Mease Butler, who at the age of sixteen inherited a share of his grandfather's estate in 1826, was responsible for the largest sale of human beings in the history of the United States: in 1859, to restore his squandered fortune, he sold 429 slaves in Savannah for more than $300,000. The British actress and writer Fanny Kemble, whose tumultuous marriage to Pierce ended in divorce in 1849, published an eyewitness account of the evils of slavery on St. Simons in her book Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839 (1863). Another Retreat Plantation large owner of land and slaves on St. Simons was Major William Page, a friend and employee of Pierce Butler Sr. Before purchasing Retreat Plantation on the southwestern tip of the island in 1804, Page managed the Hampton plantation and Butler's Island. Upon Page's death in 1827, Thomas Butler King inherited the land together with his wife, Page's daughter, Anna Matilda Page King. King expanded his father-in-law's planting empire on St. Simons as well as on the mainland, and by 1835 Retreat Plantation alone was home to as many as 355 slaves. The center of life during the island's plantation era was Christ Church, Frederica. Organized in 1807 by a group of island planters, the Episcopal church is the second oldest in the Diocese of Georgia. Embargoes imposed by the War of 1812 (1812-15) prevented the parishioners from building a church structure, so they worshiped in the home of John Beck, which stood on the site of Oglethorpe's only St. Simons residence, Orange Hall. The first Christ Church building, finished on the present site in 1820, was ruined by occupying Union troops during the Civil War. In 1884 the Reverend Anson Dodge Jr. rebuilt the church as a memorial to his first wife, Ellen. The cruciform building with a trussed gothic roof and stained-glass windows remains active today as Christ Church. Civil War and Beyond The St. Simons Island Lighthouse outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 put a sudden end to St. Simons's lucrative plantation era. In January of that year, Confederate troops were stationed at the south end of the island to guard the entrance to Brunswick Harbor. Slaves from Retreat Plantation, owned by Thomas Butler King, built earthworks and batteries. Plantation residents were scattered—the men joined the Confederate army and their families moved to the mainland. Cannon fire was heard on the island in December 1861, and Confederate troops retreated in February 1862, after dynamiting the lighthouse to keep its beacon from aiding Union troops. Soon thereafter, Union troops occupied the island, which was used as a camp for freed slaves. By August 1862 more than 500 former slaves lived on St. Simons, including Susie King Taylor, who organized a school for freed slave children. But in November the ex-slaves were taken to Hilton Head, South Carolina, and Fernandina, Florida, leaving the island abandoned. After the Civil War the island never returned to its status as an agricultural community. The plantations lay dormant because there were no slaves to work the fields. After Union general William T. Sherman's January 1865 Special Field Order No. 15 —a demand that former plantations be divided and distributed to former slaves—was overturned by U.S. president Andrew Johnson less than a year later, freedmen and women were forced to work as sharecroppers on the small farms that dotted the land previously occupied by the sprawling plantations. By St. Simons Lumber Mills 1870 real economic recovery began with the reestablishment of the timber industry. Norman Dodge and Titus G. Meigs of New York set up lumber mill operations at Gascoigne Bluff, formerly Hamilton Plantation. The lumber mills provided welcome employment for both blacks and whites and also provided mail and passenger boats to the mainland. Such water traffic, together with the construction of a new lighthouse in 1872, designed by architect Charles B. Cluskey, marked the beginning of St. Simons's tourism industry. The keeper of the lighthouse created a small amusement park, which drew many visitors, as did the seemingly miraculous light that traveled from the top of the lighthouse tower to the bottom. The island became a summer retreat for families from the mainland, particularly from Baxley, Brunswick, and Waycross. The island's resort industry was thriving by the 1880s. Beachfront structures, such as a new pier and grand hotel, were built on the southeastern end of the island and could be accessed by ferry. Around this time wealthy northerners began vacationing on the island. Twentieth Century The St. Simons Island Pier and Village opening in 1924 of the Brunswick–St. Simons Highway, today known as the Torras Causeway, was a milestone in the development of resorts in the area. St. Simons's beaches were now easily accessible to locals and tourists alike. More than 5,000 automobiles took the short drive from Brunswick to St. Simons via the causeway on its opening day, paving the way for convenient residential and resort development. In 1926 automotive pioneer Howard Coffin of Detroit, Michigan, bought large tracts of land on St. Simons, including the former Retreat Plantation, and constructed a golf course, yacht club, paved roads, and a residential subdivision. Although the causeway had brought large numbers of summer people to the island, St. Simons remained a small community with only a few hundred permanent residents until the 1940s. The St. Simons Island outbreak of World War II (1941-45) brought more visitors and residents to St. Simons. Troops stationed at Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah; and nearby Camp Stewart took weekend vacations on the island, and a new naval air base and radar school became home to even more officers and soldiers. The increased wartime population brought the island its first public school. With a major shipyard for the production of Liberty ships in nearby Brunswick, the waters of St. Simons became active with German U-boats. In April 1942, just off the coast, the Texas Company oil tanker S. S. Oklahoma and the S. S. Esso Baton Rouge were torpedoed by the Germans, bringing the war very close to home for island residents. Due in large part to the military's improvement of the island's infrastructure during the war, development on the island boomed in the 1950s and 1960s. More permanent homes and subdivisions were built, and the island was no longer just a summer resort but also a thriving community. In 1950 the Methodist conference and retreat center Epworth by the Sea opened on Gascoigne Bluff. In 1961 novelist Eugenia Price visited St. Simons and began work on her first works of fiction, known as the St. Simons Trilogy. Inspired by real events on the island, Price's trilogy renewed interest in the history of Georgia's coast, and the novelist herself relocated to the island in 1965 and lived there for thirty-one years. St. Simons is also home to contemporary Georgia writer Tina McElroy Ansa. Since Epworth by the Sea 1980 St. Simons's population has doubled. The island's continued status as a vacation destination and its ongoing development boom have put historic landmarks and natural areas at risk. While such landmarks as the Fort Frederica ruins and the Battle of Bloody Marsh site are preserved and maintained by the National Park Service, and while the historic lighthouse is maintained by the Coastal Georgia Historical Society, historic Ebos Landing has been taken over by a sewage treatment plant. Several coastal organizations have formed in recent years to save natural areas on the island. The St. Simons Land Trust, for example, has received donations of large tracts of land and plans to protect property in the island's three traditional African American neighborhoods. Despite its rapid growth and development, St. Simons remains one of the most beautiful and important islands on the Georgia coast.

Steve Keating Photography
Trendy exterior home photo in Seattle

Architect: Michelle Penn, AIA This barn home is modeled after an existing Nebraska barn in Lancaster County. Heating is by passive solar design, supplemented by a geothermal radiant floor system. Cooling will rely on a whole house fan and a passive air flow system. The passive system is created with the cupola, windows, transoms and passive venting for cooling, rather than a forced air system. Here you can see the underside of the gambrel roof and the stairs leading up to the cupola. The stair railing was created using goat fencing. The whole house fan has a pair of barn style doors that can be closed and secured shut during the winter. Notice the barn doors providing access to storage under the stairs. Photo Credits: Jackson Studios

The original plan started with a built-in concept for the fireplace. As the overall plan started taking shape for this home the built-in concept seemed like the less likely solution for the space. The client wanted a limestone mantle with a 85” TV above the fireplace. Which also did not feel right for the space. I selected this beautiful weaved walnut wood material and the clients instantly loved it. The size of the TV was the driving force behind the width and height of the overall design. My biggest concern was the size of the TV, but the material selection and design for this fireplace ended up being the perfect solution. Photography by Carlson Productions LLC

This Boulder, Colorado remodel by fuentesdesign demonstrates the possibility of renewal in American suburbs, and Passive House design principles. Once an inefficient single story 1,000 square-foot ranch house with a forced air furnace, has been transformed into a two-story, solar powered 2500 square-foot three bedroom home ready for the next generation. The new design for the home is modern with a sustainable theme, incorporating a palette of natural materials including; reclaimed wood finishes, FSC-certified pine Zola windows and doors, and natural earth and lime plasters that soften the interior and crisp contemporary exterior with a flavor of the west. A Ninety-percent efficient energy recovery fresh air ventilation system provides constant filtered fresh air to every room. The existing interior brick was removed and replaced with insulation. The remaining heating and cooling loads are easily met with the highest degree of comfort via a mini-split heat pump, the peak heat load has been cut by a factor of 4, despite the house doubling in size. During the coldest part of the Colorado winter, a wood stove for ambiance and low carbon back up heat creates a special place in both the living and kitchen area, and upstairs loft. This ultra energy efficient home relies on extremely high levels of insulation, air-tight detailing and construction, and the implementation of high performance, custom made European windows and doors by Zola Windows. Zola’s ThermoPlus Clad line, which boasts R-11 triple glazing and is thermally broken with a layer of patented German Purenit®, was selected for the project. These windows also provide a seamless indoor/outdoor connection, with 9′ wide folding doors from the dining area and a matching 9′ wide custom countertop folding window that opens the kitchen up to a grassy court where mature trees provide shade and extend the living space during the summer months. With air-tight construction, this home meets the Passive House Retrofit (EnerPHit) air-tightness standard of

The house at night is welcoming and well-lit. Beautiful early evening views of the countryside beyond. Paul Dyer Photography
Large trendy beige two-story stucco house exterior photo in San Francisco with a metal roof

Flagstone and natural stone driveway through drought tolerant garden and succulents.
This is an example of a mid-sized mediterranean drought-tolerant and partial sun backyard stone garden path in Santa Barbara.

Basket of fresh cut herbs | Lore Patterson
Photo of a small rustic landscaping in Seattle.

Nicolas Arellano
Inspiration for a mid-sized modern l-shaped porcelain tile eat-in kitchen remodel in New York with an undermount sink, recessed-panel cabinets, white cabinets, granite countertops, blue backsplash, glass tile backsplash, stainless steel appliances and an island

AquaTerra was hired to transform this dated pool and landscaping to a new outdoor environment more suited to the current home owners. We demolished everything down to the pool shell and started over. Working with an existing shell forced us to be creative with what was existing; we added the tanning ledge and the raised water feature wall all on the existing structure. Features of this renovation that add aesthetic appeal include: New tanning ledge with bubblers, new raised water feature wall, all new pool tile, coping, plaster and led lights, new pool equipment, new travertine decks, new fire pit, new artificial turf putting green and all new landscaping. The finished project gave the clients more than could have imagined! Photography:Daniel Driensky

Michael Lucas
Home design - coastal home design idea in Boston

Terran Landscapes http://www.terranlandscapes.com Project Entry: Fishers Woodland Garden 2014 PLNA Awards for Landscape Excellence Winner Category: Theme Garden $15,000-$30,000 Award Level: Bronze Photo Description: We were contracted by the client to design a calming space for their staff to relax, take a walk, and enjoy a leisurely lunch as well as to provide their grandchildren a place to run and pick flowers. The space was originally dominated by large trees and had been overgrown with ivy, sumac and aggressive vines, providing an unwelcome, dark space with little color or visual appeal. The client requested a colorful blend of shrubs and perennials that would provide interest throughout the seasons, as well as provide privacy by screening the street traffic along Carisbrooke Road. Our goal was to create the privacy screen along the road by layering plants from the ground to the tree canopy. The theme was to let nature inspire the landscape, allowing a space that was originally woodland to become an enhanced version of itself, creating a beautiful habitat for birds and butterflies to excite the senses and satisfy all who enjoy the beauty of nature. We began by clearing the brush and removing all aggressive vines and ivy that jeopardized the health of the trees. We kept and transplanted all non- invasive or native plant material in the area to various locations throughout the property. Several yards of compost were then tilled into the soil and the existing trees fertilized to provide a rich growing environment. A few challenges occurred during the design process. It was decided that a new generator was to be installed in the woodland and due to a future addition to the house, we were forced to eliminate planned additional impervious pathway surfaces. We provided screening to hide the generator and buffer the noise, and created a meandering path and sitting area out of natural woodchips instead of the proposed bluestone to solve the impervious space issue. The woodchips add a sense of informality and invite the viewer to walk slowly through the space. The reduced noise from the additional screening of the generator allows for quiet reflection as chipmunks scurry and hummingbirds dart about between the flowers. Our plant palette consists of shady understory plants that thrive and flower vigorously from spring through fall. A tall, lush, evergreen backdrop of Ilex opaca and Prunus laurocerasus ‘Schipkaensis’ provides the screening and blends into a middle layer of ‘Ivory Halo’ dogwood, hydrangeas and winterberry hollies. Beautiful perennials and groundcovers bloom along the woodland path, providing a low visual layer of color and texture. Movement throughout the garden is provided by the graceful Calamagrostis brachytricha and Hakenchloa that soften the nearby hardscaping. The woodland floor is full of shade-loving Solomon’s seal, hosta, astilbe, ferns, bleeding heart, Tiarella and Aconitum. The street side of this woodland required plants with a preference for a little more sun and drought tolerance. A palette of oakleaf hydrangea, Agastache, Liatris and Rudbeckia softens the fence line and provides the desired color. As designed and installed, the woodland garden successfully provides the client’s family and office staff a quiet space where they can take a peaceful moment and enjoy nature. Photo Credit: Lisa C. Falls

In the hills of San Anselmo in Marin County, this 5,000 square foot existing multi-story home was enlarged to 6,000 square feet with a new dance studio addition with new master bedroom suite and sitting room for evening entertainment and morning coffee. Sited on a steep hillside one acre lot, the back yard was unusable. New concrete retaining walls and planters were designed to create outdoor play and lounging areas with stairs that cascade down the hill forming a wrap-around walkway. The goal was to make the new addition integrate the disparate design elements of the house and calm it down visually. The scope was not to change everything, just the rear façade and some of the side facades. The new addition is a long rectangular space inserted into the rear of the building with new up-swooping roof that ties everything together. Clad in red cedar, the exterior reflects the relaxed nature of the one acre wooded hillside site. Fleetwood windows and wood patterned tile complete the exterior color material palate. The sitting room overlooks a new patio area off of the children’s playroom and features a butt glazed corner window providing views filtered through a grove of bay laurel trees. Inside is a television viewing area with wetbar off to the side that can be closed off with a concealed pocket door to the master bedroom. The bedroom was situated to take advantage of these views of the rear yard and the bed faces a stone tile wall with recessed skylight above. The master bath, a driving force for the project, is large enough to allow both of them to occupy and use at the same time. The new dance studio and gym was inspired for their two daughters and has become a facility for the whole family. All glass, mirrors and space with cushioned wood sports flooring, views to the new level outdoor area and tree covered side yard make for a dramatic turnaround for a home with little play or usable outdoor space previously. Photo Credit: Paul Dyer Photography.

The goal of this bath was to create a spa-like feel. Opting for the dominant color of white accented by sage green contributed to the successful outcome. A 54” white vanity with double sinks topped with Carrera marble continued the monochromatic color scheme. The Eva collection of Moen brand fixtures in a brushed nickel finish were selected for the faucet, towel ring, paper holder, and towel bars. Double bands of glass mosaic tile and niche backing accented the 3x6 Brennero Carrera tile on the shower walls. A Moentrol valve faucet was installed in the shower in order to have force and flow balance.

Photo: Kayla Pearson © 2016 Houzz
Dining room - 1960s dining room idea in Chicago

Product: Authentic Thick Limestone Pool Coping elements for pool edge Ancient Surfaces Contacts: (212) 461-0245 Email: Sales@ancientsurfaces.com Website: www.AncientSurfaces.com The design of external living spaces is known as the 'Al Fresco' space design as it is called in Italian. 'Al Fresco' translates in 'the open' or 'the cool/fresh exterior'. Customizing a contemporary swimming pool or spa into a traditional Italian Mediterranean pool can be easily achieved by selecting one of our most prized surfaces, 'The Foundation Slabs' pool coping Oolitic planks. The ease and cosines of this outdoor Mediterranean pool and spa experience will evoke in most a feeling of euphoria and exultation that on only gets while being surrounded with the pristine beauty of nature. This powerful feeling of unison with all has been known in our early recorded human history thought many primitive civilizations as a way to get people closer to the ultimate truth. A very basic but undisputed truth and that's that we are all connected to the great mother earth and to it's powerful life force that we are all a part of...

This Waukesha bathroom remodel was unique because the homeowner needed wheelchair accessibility. We designed a beautiful master bathroom and met the client’s ADA bathroom requirements. Original Space The old bathroom layout was not functional or safe. The client could not get in and out of the shower or maneuver around the vanity or toilet. The goal of this project was ADA accessibility. ADA Bathroom Requirements All elements of this bathroom and shower were discussed and planned. Every element of this Waukesha master bathroom is designed to meet the unique needs of the client. Designing an ADA bathroom requires thoughtful consideration of showering needs. Open Floor Plan – A more open floor plan allows for the rotation of the wheelchair. A 5-foot turning radius allows the wheelchair full access to the space. Doorways – Sliding barn doors open with minimal force. The doorways are 36” to accommodate a wheelchair. Curbless Shower – To create an ADA shower, we raised the sub floor level in the bedroom. There is a small rise at the bedroom door and the bathroom door. There is a seamless transition to the shower from the bathroom tile floor. Grab Bars – Decorative grab bars were installed in the shower, next to the toilet and next to the sink (towel bar). Handheld Showerhead – The handheld Delta Palm Shower slips over the hand for easy showering. Shower Shelves – The shower storage shelves are minimalistic and function as handhold points. Non-Slip Surface – Small herringbone ceramic tile on the shower floor prevents slipping. ADA Vanity – We designed and installed a wheelchair accessible bathroom vanity. It has clearance under the cabinet and insulated pipes. Lever Faucet – The faucet is offset so the client could reach it easier. We installed a lever operated faucet that is easy to turn on/off. Integrated Counter/Sink – The solid surface counter and sink is durable and easy to clean. ADA Toilet – The client requested a bidet toilet with a self opening and closing lid. ADA bathroom requirements for toilets specify a taller height and more clearance. Heated Floors – WarmlyYours heated floors add comfort to this beautiful space. Linen Cabinet – A custom linen cabinet stores the homeowners towels and toiletries. Style The design of this bathroom is light and airy with neutral tile and simple patterns. The cabinetry matches the existing oak woodwork throughout the home.

Angle Eye Photography
Living room - large traditional enclosed medium tone wood floor living room idea in Philadelphia with white walls

Stuart Wade, Envision Virtual Tours The second-largest and most developed of Georgia's barrier islands, St. Simons is approximately twelve miles long and nearly three miles wide at its widest stretch (roughly the size of Manhattan Island in New York). The island is located in Glynn County on Georgia's coast and lies east of Brunswick (the seat of Glynn County), south of Little St. Simons Island and the Hampton River, and north of Jekyll Island. The resort community of Sea Island is separated from St. Simons on the east by the Black Banks River. Known for its oak tree canopies and historic landmarks, St. Simons is both a tourist destination and, according to the 2010 U.S. census, home to 12,743 residents. Early History The earliest St. Simons Island Village record of human habitation on the island dates to the Late Archaic Period, about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. Remnants of shell rings left behind by Native Americans from this era survive on many of the barrier islands, including St. Simons. Centuries later, during the period known by historians as the chiefdom era, the Guale Indians established a chiefdom centered on St. Catherines Island and used St. Simons as their hunting and fishing grounds. By 1500 the Guale had established a permanent village of about 200 people on St. Simons, which they called Guadalquini. Beginning in 1568, the Spanish attempted to create missions along the Georgia coast. Catholic missions were the primary means by which Georgia's indigenous Native American chiefdoms were assimilated into the Spanish colonial system along the northern frontier of greater Spanish Florida. In the 1600s St. Simons became home to two Spanish missions: San Buenaventura de Guadalquini, on the southern tip of the island, and Santo Domingo de Asao (or Asajo), on the northern tip. Located on the inland side of the island were the pagan refugee villages of San Simón, the island's namesake, and Ocotonico. In 1684 pirate raids left the missions and villages largely abandoned. Colonial History As Fort Frederica early as 1670, with Great Britain's establishment of the colony of Carolina and its expansion into Georgia territory, Spanish rule was threatened by the English. The Georgia coast was considered "debatable land" by England and Spain, even though Spain had fully retreated from St. Simons by 1702. Thirty-one years later General James Edward Oglethorpe founded the English settlement of Savannah. In 1736 he established Fort Frederica, named after the heir to the British throne, Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, on the west side of St. Simons Island to protect Savannah and the Carolinas from the Spanish threat. Between 1736 and 1749 Fort Frederica was the hub of British military operations along the Georgia frontier. A town of the same name grew up around the fort and was of great importance to the new colony. By 1740 Frederica's population was 1,000. In 1736 the congregation of what would become Christ Church was organized within Fort Frederica as a mission of the Church of England. Charles Wesley led the first services. In 1742 Britain's decisive victory over Spain in the Battle of Bloody Marsh, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, ended the Spanish threat to the Georgia coast. When the British regimen disbanded in 1749, most of the townspeople relocated to the mainland. Fort Frederica went into decline and, except for a short time of prosperity during the 1760s and 1770s under the leadership of merchant James Spalding, never fully recovered. Today the historic citadel's tabby ruins are maintained by the National Park Service. Plantation Era By the start of the American Revolution (1775-83), Fort Frederica was obsolete, and St. Simons was left largely uninhabited as most of its residents joined the patriot army. Besides hosting a small Georgia naval victory on the Fort Frederica River, providing guns from its famous fort for use at Fort Morris in Sunbury, and serving as an arena for pillaging by privateers and British soldiers, the island played almost no role in the war. Following the war, many of the townspeople, their businesses destroyed, turned to agriculture. The island was transformed into fourteen cotton plantations after acres of live oak trees were cleared for farm land and used for building American warships, including the famous USS Constitution, or "Old Ironsides." Although rice was the predominant crop along the neighboring Altamaha River, St. Simons was known for its production of long-staple cotton, which soon came to be known as Sea Island cotton. Between Ebos Landing the 1780s and the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65), St. Simons's plantation culture flourished. The saline atmosphere and the availability of cheap slave labor proved an ideal combination for the cultivation of Sea Island cotton. In 1803 a group of Ebo slaves who survived the Middle Passage and arrived on the west side of St. Simons staged a rebellion and drowned themselves. The sacred site is known today as Ebos Landing. One of the largest owners of land and slaves on St. Simons was Pierce Butler, master of Hampton Point Plantation, located on the northern end of the island. By 1793 Butler owned more than 500 slaves, who cultivated 800 acres of cotton on St. Simons and 300 acres of rice on Butler's Island in the Altamaha River delta. Butler's grandson, Pierce Mease Butler, who at the age of sixteen inherited a share of his grandfather's estate in 1826, was responsible for the largest sale of human beings in the history of the United States: in 1859, to restore his squandered fortune, he sold 429 slaves in Savannah for more than $300,000. The British actress and writer Fanny Kemble, whose tumultuous marriage to Pierce ended in divorce in 1849, published an eyewitness account of the evils of slavery on St. Simons in her book Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839 (1863). Another Retreat Plantation large owner of land and slaves on St. Simons was Major William Page, a friend and employee of Pierce Butler Sr. Before purchasing Retreat Plantation on the southwestern tip of the island in 1804, Page managed the Hampton plantation and Butler's Island. Upon Page's death in 1827, Thomas Butler King inherited the land together with his wife, Page's daughter, Anna Matilda Page King. King expanded his father-in-law's planting empire on St. Simons as well as on the mainland, and by 1835 Retreat Plantation alone was home to as many as 355 slaves. The center of life during the island's plantation era was Christ Church, Frederica. Organized in 1807 by a group of island planters, the Episcopal church is the second oldest in the Diocese of Georgia. Embargoes imposed by the War of 1812 (1812-15) prevented the parishioners from building a church structure, so they worshiped in the home of John Beck, which stood on the site of Oglethorpe's only St. Simons residence, Orange Hall. The first Christ Church building, finished on the present site in 1820, was ruined by occupying Union troops during the Civil War. In 1884 the Reverend Anson Dodge Jr. rebuilt the church as a memorial to his first wife, Ellen. The cruciform building with a trussed gothic roof and stained-glass windows remains active today as Christ Church. Civil War and Beyond The St. Simons Island Lighthouse outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 put a sudden end to St. Simons's lucrative plantation era. In January of that year, Confederate troops were stationed at the south end of the island to guard the entrance to Brunswick Harbor. Slaves from Retreat Plantation, owned by Thomas Butler King, built earthworks and batteries. Plantation residents were scattered—the men joined the Confederate army and their families moved to the mainland. Cannon fire was heard on the island in December 1861, and Confederate troops retreated in February 1862, after dynamiting the lighthouse to keep its beacon from aiding Union troops. Soon thereafter, Union troops occupied the island, which was used as a camp for freed slaves. By August 1862 more than 500 former slaves lived on St. Simons, including Susie King Taylor, who organized a school for freed slave children. But in November the ex-slaves were taken to Hilton Head, South Carolina, and Fernandina, Florida, leaving the island abandoned. After the Civil War the island never returned to its status as an agricultural community. The plantations lay dormant because there were no slaves to work the fields. After Union general William T. Sherman's January 1865 Special Field Order No. 15 —a demand that former plantations be divided and distributed to former slaves—was overturned by U.S. president Andrew Johnson less than a year later, freedmen and women were forced to work as sharecroppers on the small farms that dotted the land previously occupied by the sprawling plantations. By St. Simons Lumber Mills 1870 real economic recovery began with the reestablishment of the timber industry. Norman Dodge and Titus G. Meigs of New York set up lumber mill operations at Gascoigne Bluff, formerly Hamilton Plantation. The lumber mills provided welcome employment for both blacks and whites and also provided mail and passenger boats to the mainland. Such water traffic, together with the construction of a new lighthouse in 1872, designed by architect Charles B. Cluskey, marked the beginning of St. Simons's tourism industry. The keeper of the lighthouse created a small amusement park, which drew many visitors, as did the seemingly miraculous light that traveled from the top of the lighthouse tower to the bottom. The island became a summer retreat for families from the mainland, particularly from Baxley, Brunswick, and Waycross. The island's resort industry was thriving by the 1880s. Beachfront structures, such as a new pier and grand hotel, were built on the southeastern end of the island and could be accessed by ferry. Around this time wealthy northerners began vacationing on the island. Twentieth Century The St. Simons Island Pier and Village opening in 1924 of the Brunswick–St. Simons Highway, today known as the Torras Causeway, was a milestone in the development of resorts in the area. St. Simons's beaches were now easily accessible to locals and tourists alike. More than 5,000 automobiles took the short drive from Brunswick to St. Simons via the causeway on its opening day, paving the way for convenient residential and resort development. In 1926 automotive pioneer Howard Coffin of Detroit, Michigan, bought large tracts of land on St. Simons, including the former Retreat Plantation, and constructed a golf course, yacht club, paved roads, and a residential subdivision. Although the causeway had brought large numbers of summer people to the island, St. Simons remained a small community with only a few hundred permanent residents until the 1940s. The St. Simons Island outbreak of World War II (1941-45) brought more visitors and residents to St. Simons. Troops stationed at Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah; and nearby Camp Stewart took weekend vacations on the island, and a new naval air base and radar school became home to even more officers and soldiers. The increased wartime population brought the island its first public school. With a major shipyard for the production of Liberty ships in nearby Brunswick, the waters of St. Simons became active with German U-boats. In April 1942, just off the coast, the Texas Company oil tanker S. S. Oklahoma and the S. S. Esso Baton Rouge were torpedoed by the Germans, bringing the war very close to home for island residents. Due in large part to the military's improvement of the island's infrastructure during the war, development on the island boomed in the 1950s and 1960s. More permanent homes and subdivisions were built, and the island was no longer just a summer resort but also a thriving community. In 1950 the Methodist conference and retreat center Epworth by the Sea opened on Gascoigne Bluff. In 1961 novelist Eugenia Price visited St. Simons and began work on her first works of fiction, known as the St. Simons Trilogy. Inspired by real events on the island, Price's trilogy renewed interest in the history of Georgia's coast, and the novelist herself relocated to the island in 1965 and lived there for thirty-one years. St. Simons is also home to contemporary Georgia writer Tina McElroy Ansa. Since Epworth by the Sea 1980 St. Simons's population has doubled. The island's continued status as a vacation destination and its ongoing development boom have put historic landmarks and natural areas at risk. While such landmarks as the Fort Frederica ruins and the Battle of Bloody Marsh site are preserved and maintained by the National Park Service, and while the historic lighthouse is maintained by the Coastal Georgia Historical Society, historic Ebos Landing has been taken over by a sewage treatment plant. Several coastal organizations have formed in recent years to save natural areas on the island. The St. Simons Land Trust, for example, has received donations of large tracts of land and plans to protect property in the island's three traditional African American neighborhoods. Despite its rapid growth and development, St. Simons remains one of the most beautiful and important islands on the Georgia coast.