Ernesto Santalla was approached to create a new home for two Washington, DC lawyers wishing to downsize their living space. The move took them from a row house in Washington's historic Dupont Circle neighborhood to a two bedroom apartment in the vibrant, up-and-coming U Street Corridor. Our task was to transform a rather plain and generic apartment into a custom, sophisticated space in a few strategic moves. Ceiling details serve to define functional areas of the living space without creating divisions. Changing some doors from wood to frosted glass, creates a sense of continuity between spaces, and allows light to travel between spaces. Lighting was inserted strategically, to enhance certain functions of the home. The kitchen was partially enclosed with a plane of frosted glass to create visual separation from the main living space while still allowing natural light to filter in from the expansive wall of floor-to-ceiling windows. Color was used to reinforce the architectural intent and simplify spaces, such as the entry, which as many doors and frames. Furniture was selected to blend with the client's collection of heirloom pieces, creating a sophisticated juxtaposition. Statement pieces like a ceiling light from Viabizzuno create impact while maintaining the visual simplicity of our minimal approach. Photography by Geoffrey Hodgdon

Pleasant Heights is a newly constructed home that sits atop a large bluff in Chatham overlooking Pleasant Bay, the largest salt water estuary on Cape Cod. - Two classic shingle style gambrel roofs run perpendicular to the main body of the house and flank an entry porch with two stout, robust columns. A hip-roofed dormer—with an arch-top center window and two tiny side windows—highlights the center above the porch and caps off the orderly but not too formal entry area. A third gambrel defines the garage that is set off to one side. A continuous flared roof overhang brings down the scale and helps shade the first-floor windows. Sinuous lines created by arches and brackets balance the linear geometry of the main mass of the house and are playful and fun. A broad back porch provides a covered transition from house to landscape and frames sweeping views. - Inside, a grand entry hall with a curved stair and balcony above sets up entry to a sequence of spaces that stretch out parallel to the shoreline. Living, dining, kitchen, breakfast nook, study, screened-in porch, all bedrooms and some bathrooms take in the spectacular bay view. A rustic brick and stone fireplace warms the living room and recalls the finely detailed chimney that anchors the west end of the house outside. - PSD Scope Of Work: Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Construction | Living Space: 6,883ft² | Photography: Brian Vanden Brink |

Clean, crisp kitchen, transitional with just enough of a contemporary feeling set off with blue and white fabrics on the banquette and window treatments. The blackmarble geometric floor grounds the design.

Ultra™ Series fiberglass windows by Milgard. http://bit.ly/1G5dBYd
Traditional gray three-story mixed siding gable roof idea in Seattle

This project was a complete renovation. It was the first project a newlywed couple did together. In one of the first meetings we all agreed we loved the Osborne and Little striped polka dot fabric (pillow on the chairs and sofa). The room grew from there. A main objective was to enhance the view of Central Park all the way to the Palisades. We kept the walls light and the upholstery monochromatic, except for a dash of off white in the Hugues Chevalier (Ying Armchair). The area rug is large and almost square we had it made by Royce wool carpets. Joanne and Bill Riley custom designed it. The background was kept the blue of the upholstery further grounding the space yet keeping it quiet enough with only red and gold accents (there are actually 9 colors in the rug, but they are the same hues as the 3 main colors) The wood of the dining area adds a solid feel. (Table and chairs by Stanley furniture) Along the long wall is a 20' built-in with a Costa Smerelda granite counter top, as. storage space is at a premium in NYC. There is enough room for a small bar area on the left, dining area storage in the middle and to the far right. Also, in the middle is a 50" TV that comes up out of the granite and audio equipment. Above the built-in are wall to wall mirrors with glass shelves hanging from them. This keeps an open and spacious feel. The accessories keep it welcoming. The wall sconces (also on the mirrors) are by Currey and Co. The large crown molding and the high gloss ceiling add to the subtle drama. The small custom wood cabinet is made of Claro Walnut with ebonized Ash legs and handles by Hubel Handcrafted. It sits between the window and the door keeping you centered in the space. All in all an easy space to enjoy!

Example of a minimalist master carpeted bedroom design in Dallas with a standard fireplace and a stone fireplace

Photo credit: Scott McDonald @ Hedrich Blessing 7RR-Ecohome: The design objective was to build a house for a couple recently married who both had kids from previous marriages. How to bridge two families together? The design looks forward in terms of how people live today. The home is an experiment in transparency and solid form; removing borders and edges from outside to inside the house, and to really depict “flowing and endless space”. The house floor plan is derived by pushing and pulling the house’s form to maximize the backyard and minimize the public front yard while welcoming the sun in key rooms by rotating the house 45-degrees to true north. The angular form of the house is a result of the family’s program, the zoning rules, the lot’s attributes, and the sun’s path. We wanted to construct a house that is smart and efficient in terms of construction and energy, both in terms of the building and the user. We could tell a story of how the house is built in terms of the constructability, structure and enclosure, with a nod to Japanese wood construction in the method in which the siding is installed and the exposed interior beams are placed in the double height space. We engineered the house to be smart which not only looks modern but acts modern; every aspect of user control is simplified to a digital touch button, whether lights, shades, blinds, HVAC, communication, audio, video, or security. We developed a planning module based on a 6-foot square room size and a 6-foot wide connector called an interstitial space for hallways, bathrooms, stairs and mechanical, which keeps the rooms pure and uncluttered. The house is 6,200 SF of livable space, plus garage and basement gallery for a total of 9,200 SF. A large formal foyer celebrates the entry and opens up to the living, dining, kitchen and family rooms all focused on the rear garden. The east side of the second floor is the Master wing and a center bridge connects it to the kid’s wing on the west. Second floor terraces and sunscreens provide views and shade in this suburban setting. The playful mathematical grid of the house in the x, y and z axis also extends into the layout of the trees and hard-scapes, all centered on a suburban one-acre lot. Many green attributes were designed into the home; Ipe wood sunscreens and window shades block out unwanted solar gain in summer, but allow winter sun in. Patio door and operable windows provide ample opportunity for natural ventilation throughout the open floor plan. Minimal windows on east and west sides to reduce heat loss in winter and unwanted gains in summer. Open floor plan and large window expanse reduces lighting demands and maximizes available daylight. Skylights provide natural light to the basement rooms. Durable, low-maintenance exterior materials include stone, ipe wood siding and decking, and concrete roof pavers. Design is based on a 2' planning grid to minimize construction waste. Basement foundation walls and slab are highly insulated. FSC-certified walnut wood flooring was used. Light colored concrete roof pavers to reduce cooling loads by as much as 15%. 2x6 framing allows for more insulation and energy savings. Super efficient windows have low-E argon gas filled units, and thermally insulated aluminum frames. Permeable brick and stone pavers reduce the site’s storm-water runoff. Countertops use recycled composite materials. Energy-Star rated furnaces and smart thermostats are located throughout the house to minimize duct runs and avoid energy loss. Energy-Star rated boiler that heats up both radiant floors and domestic hot water. Low-flow toilets and plumbing fixtures are used to conserve water usage. No VOC finish options and direct venting fireplaces maintain a high interior air quality. Smart home system controls lighting, HVAC, and shades to better manage energy use. Plumbing runs through interior walls reducing possibilities of heat loss and freezing problems. A large food pantry was placed next to kitchen to reduce trips to the grocery store. Home office reduces need for automobile transit and associated CO2 footprint. Plan allows for aging in place, with guest suite than can become the master suite, with no need to move as family members mature.

As written in Northern Home & Cottage by Elizabeth Edwards Sara and Paul Matthews call their head-turning home, located in a sweet neighborhood just up the hill from downtown Petoskey, “a very human story.” Indeed it is. Sara and her husband, Paul, have a special-needs son as well as an energetic middle-school daughter. This home has an answer for everyone. Located down the street from the school, it is ideally situated for their daughter and a self-contained apartment off the great room accommodates all their son’s needs while giving his caretakers privacy—and the family theirs. The Matthews began the building process by taking their thoughts and needs to Stephanie Baldwin and her team at Edgewater Design Group. Beyond the above considerations, they wanted their new home to be low maintenance and to stand out architecturally, “But not so much that anyone would complain that it didn’t work in our neighborhood,” says Sara. “We were thrilled that Edgewater listened to us and were able to give us a unique-looking house that is meeting all our needs.” Lombardy LLC built this handsome home with Paul working alongside the construction crew throughout the project. The low maintenance exterior is a cutting-edge blend of stacked stone, black corrugated steel, black framed windows and Douglas fir soffits—elements that add up to an organic contemporary look. The use of black steel, including interior beams and the staircase system, lend an industrial vibe that is courtesy of the Matthews’ friend Dan Mello of Trimet Industries in Traverse City. The couple first met Dan, a metal fabricator, a number of years ago, right around the time they found out that their then two-year-old son would never be able to walk. After the couple explained to Dan that they couldn’t find a solution for a child who wasn’t big enough for a wheelchair, he designed a comfortable, rolling chair that was just perfect. They still use it. The couple’s gratitude for the chair resulted in a trusting relationship with Dan, so it was natural for them to welcome his talents into their home-building process. A maple floor finished to bring out all of its color-tones envelops the room in warmth. Alder doors and trim and a Doug fir ceiling reflect that warmth. Clearstory windows and floor-to-ceiling window banks fill the space with light—and with views of the spacious grounds that will become a canvas for Paul, a retired landscaper. The couple’s vibrant art pieces play off against modernist furniture and lighting that is due to an inspired collaboration between Sara and interior designer Kelly Paulsen. “She was absolutely instrumental to the project,” Sara says. “I went through two designers before I finally found Kelly.” The open clean-lined kitchen, butler’s pantry outfitted with a beverage center and Miele coffee machine (that allows guests to wait on themselves when Sara is cooking), and an outdoor room that centers around a wood-burning fireplace, all make for easy, fabulous entertaining. A den just off the great room houses the big-screen television and Sara’s loom— making for relaxing evenings of weaving, game watching and togetherness. Tourgoers will leave understanding that this house is everything great design should be. Form following function—and solving very human issues with soul-soothing style.

We are excited to share our latest project a Modern Farmhouse. Our client loves East Coast style this was fun to create with the best bones we had to just select phenomenal materials to make this space look fantastic! Center stage is this great window with a view of a backyard oasis. The cabinetry is special and unique with doors that you can’t find everywhere. Take a close look at the details!! We blocked out the corner of the kitchen where the subzero refrigerator freezer is located to create a space for the pullout pantries that are located on each side of the ref/freezer. It is a design element but I prefer to cover the dishwasher to have an uninterrupted are that makes the sink a focal point. This kitchen sink is a native trails concrete farm sink which pairs perfectly with the caesarstone rugged concrete countertop. Custom made hood with charred wood that is the perfect accent to a subway tile that has rustic elements. In the center is a 36" wolf range, off to the left finishing out this kitchen is a steam unit. This kitchen deliveries on style and the culinary desires of the most adventurous cooks. @SubzeroandWolf Appliances Cabinetry and Kitchen Design @signaturedesigns_kbi #customcabinets #farmhouse #blueisland

The Aspect Window Series has been independently tested to meet strict energy efficiency standards and is ENERGY STAR® certified. Aspect brand custom vinyl windows come standard with an innovative, multi-chambered frame and sash design, triple weather-stripping and ComforTech™ Warm Edge Glazing, a high-tech glass package that measurably improves thermal performance—for less heat loss, warmer glass temperatures and reduced interior condensation.

Photo credit: Scott McDonald @ Hedrich Blessing 7RR-Ecohome: The design objective was to build a house for a couple recently married who both had kids from previous marriages. How to bridge two families together? The design looks forward in terms of how people live today. The home is an experiment in transparency and solid form; removing borders and edges from outside to inside the house, and to really depict “flowing and endless space”. The house floor plan is derived by pushing and pulling the house’s form to maximize the backyard and minimize the public front yard while welcoming the sun in key rooms by rotating the house 45-degrees to true north. The angular form of the house is a result of the family’s program, the zoning rules, the lot’s attributes, and the sun’s path. We wanted to construct a house that is smart and efficient in terms of construction and energy, both in terms of the building and the user. We could tell a story of how the house is built in terms of the constructability, structure and enclosure, with a nod to Japanese wood construction in the method in which the siding is installed and the exposed interior beams are placed in the double height space. We engineered the house to be smart which not only looks modern but acts modern; every aspect of user control is simplified to a digital touch button, whether lights, shades, blinds, HVAC, communication, audio, video, or security. We developed a planning module based on a 6-foot square room size and a 6-foot wide connector called an interstitial space for hallways, bathrooms, stairs and mechanical, which keeps the rooms pure and uncluttered. The house is 6,200 SF of livable space, plus garage and basement gallery for a total of 9,200 SF. A large formal foyer celebrates the entry and opens up to the living, dining, kitchen and family rooms all focused on the rear garden. The east side of the second floor is the Master wing and a center bridge connects it to the kid’s wing on the west. Second floor terraces and sunscreens provide views and shade in this suburban setting. The playful mathematical grid of the house in the x, y and z axis also extends into the layout of the trees and hard-scapes, all centered on a suburban one-acre lot. Many green attributes were designed into the home; Ipe wood sunscreens and window shades block out unwanted solar gain in summer, but allow winter sun in. Patio door and operable windows provide ample opportunity for natural ventilation throughout the open floor plan. Minimal windows on east and west sides to reduce heat loss in winter and unwanted gains in summer. Open floor plan and large window expanse reduces lighting demands and maximizes available daylight. Skylights provide natural light to the basement rooms. Durable, low-maintenance exterior materials include stone, ipe wood siding and decking, and concrete roof pavers. Design is based on a 2' planning grid to minimize construction waste. Basement foundation walls and slab are highly insulated. FSC-certified walnut wood flooring was used. Light colored concrete roof pavers to reduce cooling loads by as much as 15%. 2x6 framing allows for more insulation and energy savings. Super efficient windows have low-E argon gas filled units, and thermally insulated aluminum frames. Permeable brick and stone pavers reduce the site’s storm-water runoff. Countertops use recycled composite materials. Energy-Star rated furnaces and smart thermostats are located throughout the house to minimize duct runs and avoid energy loss. Energy-Star rated boiler that heats up both radiant floors and domestic hot water. Low-flow toilets and plumbing fixtures are used to conserve water usage. No VOC finish options and direct venting fireplaces maintain a high interior air quality. Smart home system controls lighting, HVAC, and shades to better manage energy use. Plumbing runs through interior walls reducing possibilities of heat loss and freezing problems. A large food pantry was placed next to kitchen to reduce trips to the grocery store. Home office reduces need for automobile transit and associated CO2 footprint. Plan allows for aging in place, with guest suite than can become the master suite, with no need to move as family members mature.

Catherine Nguyen. Neill & Lee Contractors. Closet converted to a powder room.
Trendy powder room photo in San Francisco with a wall-mount sink

Inspired by the surrounding landscape, the Craftsman/Prairie style is one of the few truly American architectural styles. It was developed around the turn of the century by a group of Midwestern architects and continues to be among the most comfortable of all American-designed architecture more than a century later, one of the main reasons it continues to attract architects and homeowners today. Oxbridge builds on that solid reputation, drawing from Craftsman/Prairie and classic Farmhouse styles. Its handsome Shingle-clad exterior includes interesting pitched rooflines, alternating rows of cedar shake siding, stone accents in the foundation and chimney and distinctive decorative brackets. Repeating triple windows add interest to the exterior while keeping interior spaces open and bright. Inside, the floor plan is equally impressive. Columns on the porch and a custom entry door with sidelights and decorative glass leads into a spacious 2,900-square-foot main floor, including a 19 by 24-foot living room with a period-inspired built-ins and a natural fireplace. While inspired by the past, the home lives for the present, with open rooms and plenty of storage throughout. Also included is a 27-foot-wide family-style kitchen with a large island and eat-in dining and a nearby dining room with a beadboard ceiling that leads out onto a relaxing 240-square-foot screen porch that takes full advantage of the nearby outdoors and a private 16 by 20-foot master suite with a sloped ceiling and relaxing personal sitting area. The first floor also includes a large walk-in closet, a home management area and pantry to help you stay organized and a first-floor laundry area. Upstairs, another 1,500 square feet awaits, with a built-ins and a window seat at the top of the stairs that nod to the home’s historic inspiration. Opt for three family bedrooms or use one of the three as a yoga room; the upper level also includes attic access, which offers another 500 square feet, perfect for crafts or a playroom. More space awaits in the lower level, where another 1,500 square feet (and an additional 1,000) include a recreation/family room with nine-foot ceilings, a wine cellar and home office. Photographer: Jeff Garland

Architect: Blaine Bonadies, Bonadies Architect Photography By: Jean Allsopp Photography “Just as described, there is an edgy, irreverent vibe here, but the result has an appropriate stature and seriousness. Love the overscale windows. And the outdoor spaces are so great.” Situated atop an old Civil War battle site, this new residence was conceived for a couple with southern values and a rock-and-roll attitude. The project consists of a house, a pool with a pool house and a renovated music studio. A marriage of modern and traditional design, this project used a combination of California redwood siding, stone and a slate roof with flat-seam lead overhangs. Intimate and well planned, there is no space wasted in this home. The execution of the detail work, such as handmade railings, metal awnings and custom windows jambs, made this project mesmerizing. Cues from the client and how they use their space helped inspire and develop the initial floor plan, making it live at a human scale but with dramatic elements. Their varying taste then inspired the theme of traditional with an edge. The lines and rhythm of the house were simplified, and then complemented with some key details that made the house a juxtaposition of styles. The wood Ultimate Casement windows were all standard sizes. However, there was a desire to make the windows have a “deep pocket” look to create a break in the facade and add a dramatic shadow line. Marvin was able to customize the jambs by extruding them to the exterior. They added a very thin exterior profile, which negated the need for exterior casing. The same detail was in the stone veneers and walls, as well as the horizontal siding walls, with no need for any modification. This resulted in a very sleek look. MARVIN PRODUCTS USED: Marvin Ultimate Casement Window

This beverage area has a wet bar within its absolute black polished granite counter, tops white shaker cabinets. The backsplash is tin. The open shelves are made from reclaimed wood and feature subtle and modern lighting. The black iron hardware matches the hardware on the adjacent Dutch door. After tearing down this home's existing addition, we set out to create a new addition with a modern farmhouse feel that still blended seamlessly with the original house. The addition includes a kitchen great room, laundry room and sitting room. Outside, we perfectly aligned the cupola on top of the roof, with the upper story windows and those with the lower windows, giving the addition a clean and crisp look. Using granite from Chester County, mica schist stone and hardy plank siding on the exterior walls helped the addition to blend in seamlessly with the original house. Inside, we customized each new space by paying close attention to the little details. Reclaimed wood for the mantle and shelving, sleek and subtle lighting under the reclaimed shelves, unique wall and floor tile, recessed outlets in the island, walnut trim on the hood, paneled appliances, and repeating materials in a symmetrical way work together to give the interior a sophisticated yet comfortable feel. Rudloff Custom Builders has won Best of Houzz for Customer Service in 2014, 2015 2016, 2017 and 2019. We also were voted Best of Design in 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 which only 2% of professionals receive. Rudloff Custom Builders has been featured on Houzz in their Kitchen of the Week, What to Know About Using Reclaimed Wood in the Kitchen as well as included in their Bathroom WorkBook article. We are a full service, certified remodeling company that covers all of the Philadelphia suburban area. This business, like most others, developed from a friendship of young entrepreneurs who wanted to make a difference in their clients’ lives, one household at a time. This relationship between partners is much more than a friendship. Edward and Stephen Rudloff are brothers who have renovated and built custom homes together paying close attention to detail. They are carpenters by trade and understand concept and execution. Rudloff Custom Builders will provide services for you with the highest level of professionalism, quality, detail, punctuality and craftsmanship, every step of the way along our journey together. Specializing in residential construction allows us to connect with our clients early in the design phase to ensure that every detail is captured as you imagined. One stop shopping is essentially what you will receive with Rudloff Custom Builders from design of your project to the construction of your dreams, executed by on-site project managers and skilled craftsmen. Our concept: envision our client’s ideas and make them a reality. Our mission: CREATING LIFETIME RELATIONSHIPS BUILT ON TRUST AND INTEGRITY. Photo Credit: Linda McManus Images

My clients purchased a grand home on a spectacular waterfront setting, but the interior felt dark and drab. Our challenge was to turn the existing home into a high end Hampton-style residence without major construction. We choose to focus on color, contrast and texture, changing almost every surface in the home and reversing the contrast to make the home light and airy. We invested the construction expense on elements crucial to style and function. Removing a row of out of scale upper cabinetry in the kitchen and replacing it with 3 double hung windows expands the view to 180 degrees and floods the room with light. To create symmetry and balance in the kitchen, we moved the cooktop and centered the sink. The wine cellar entry opened awkwardly into the kitchen and there was no pantry, so we modified the wine cellar and moved the door for better flow, allowing for a large pantry. On the opposite end of the great room, we balanced the fireplace with cabinetry and tall wainscoting. The floors were stained dark espresso while all other trim and cabinetry went a bright white. It took 14 tries to get the perfect wall color – a pale beige/color reminiscent of sand. The blue and white furniture and details pull the entire space together and creates a sophisticated yet casual feel. Photos by Steve Armstrong www.cascadepromedia.com

Property Marketed by Hudson Place Realty - Seldom seen, this unique property offers the highest level of original period detail and old world craftsmanship. With its 19th century provenance, 6000+ square feet and outstanding architectural elements, 913 Hudson Street captures the essence of its prominent address and rich history. An extensive and thoughtful renovation has revived this exceptional home to its original elegance while being mindful of the modern-day urban family. Perched on eastern Hudson Street, 913 impresses with its 33’ wide lot, terraced front yard, original iron doors and gates, a turreted limestone facade and distinctive mansard roof. The private walled-in rear yard features a fabulous outdoor kitchen complete with gas grill, refrigeration and storage drawers. The generous side yard allows for 3 sides of windows, infusing the home with natural light. The 21st century design conveniently features the kitchen, living & dining rooms on the parlor floor, that suits both elaborate entertaining and a more private, intimate lifestyle. Dramatic double doors lead you to the formal living room replete with a stately gas fireplace with original tile surround, an adjoining center sitting room with bay window and grand formal dining room. A made-to-order kitchen showcases classic cream cabinetry, 48” Wolf range with pot filler, SubZero refrigerator and Miele dishwasher. A large center island houses a Decor warming drawer, additional under-counter refrigerator and freezer and secondary prep sink. Additional walk-in pantry and powder room complete the parlor floor. The 3rd floor Master retreat features a sitting room, dressing hall with 5 double closets and laundry center, en suite fitness room and calming master bath; magnificently appointed with steam shower, BainUltra tub and marble tile with inset mosaics. Truly a one-of-a-kind home with custom milled doors, restored ceiling medallions, original inlaid flooring, regal moldings, central vacuum, touch screen home automation and sound system, 4 zone central air conditioning & 10 zone radiant heat.

Praised for its visually appealing, modern yet comfortable design, this Scottsdale residence took home the gold in the 2014 Design Awards from Professional Builder magazine. Built by Calvis Wyant Luxury Homes, the 5,877-square-foot residence features an open floor plan that includes Western Window Systems’ multi-slide pocket doors to allow for optimal inside-to-outside flow. Tropical influences such as covered patios, a pool, and reflecting ponds give the home a lush, resort-style feel.

Stuart Wade, Envision Virtual Tours The second-largest and most developed of Georgia's barrier islands, St. Simons is approximately twelve miles long and nearly three miles wide at its widest stretch (roughly the size of Manhattan Island in New York). The island is located in Glynn County on Georgia's coast and lies east of Brunswick (the seat of Glynn County), south of Little St. Simons Island and the Hampton River, and north of Jekyll Island. The resort community of Sea Island is separated from St. Simons on the east by the Black Banks River. Known for its oak tree canopies and historic landmarks, St. Simons is both a tourist destination and, according to the 2010 U.S. census, home to 12,743 residents. Early History The earliest St. Simons Island Village record of human habitation on the island dates to the Late Archaic Period, about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. Remnants of shell rings left behind by Native Americans from this era survive on many of the barrier islands, including St. Simons. Centuries later, during the period known by historians as the chiefdom era, the Guale Indians established a chiefdom centered on St. Catherines Island and used St. Simons as their hunting and fishing grounds. By 1500 the Guale had established a permanent village of about 200 people on St. Simons, which they called Guadalquini. Beginning in 1568, the Spanish attempted to create missions along the Georgia coast. Catholic missions were the primary means by which Georgia's indigenous Native American chiefdoms were assimilated into the Spanish colonial system along the northern frontier of greater Spanish Florida. In the 1600s St. Simons became home to two Spanish missions: San Buenaventura de Guadalquini, on the southern tip of the island, and Santo Domingo de Asao (or Asajo), on the northern tip. Located on the inland side of the island were the pagan refugee villages of San Simón, the island's namesake, and Ocotonico. In 1684 pirate raids left the missions and villages largely abandoned. Colonial History As Fort Frederica early as 1670, with Great Britain's establishment of the colony of Carolina and its expansion into Georgia territory, Spanish rule was threatened by the English. The Georgia coast was considered "debatable land" by England and Spain, even though Spain had fully retreated from St. Simons by 1702. Thirty-one years later General James Edward Oglethorpe founded the English settlement of Savannah. In 1736 he established Fort Frederica, named after the heir to the British throne, Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, on the west side of St. Simons Island to protect Savannah and the Carolinas from the Spanish threat. Between 1736 and 1749 Fort Frederica was the hub of British military operations along the Georgia frontier. A town of the same name grew up around the fort and was of great importance to the new colony. By 1740 Frederica's population was 1,000. In 1736 the congregation of what would become Christ Church was organized within Fort Frederica as a mission of the Church of England. Charles Wesley led the first services. In 1742 Britain's decisive victory over Spain in the Battle of Bloody Marsh, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, ended the Spanish threat to the Georgia coast. When the British regimen disbanded in 1749, most of the townspeople relocated to the mainland. Fort Frederica went into decline and, except for a short time of prosperity during the 1760s and 1770s under the leadership of merchant James Spalding, never fully recovered. Today the historic citadel's tabby ruins are maintained by the National Park Service. Plantation Era By the start of the American Revolution (1775-83), Fort Frederica was obsolete, and St. Simons was left largely uninhabited as most of its residents joined the patriot army. Besides hosting a small Georgia naval victory on the Fort Frederica River, providing guns from its famous fort for use at Fort Morris in Sunbury, and serving as an arena for pillaging by privateers and British soldiers, the island played almost no role in the war. Following the war, many of the townspeople, their businesses destroyed, turned to agriculture. The island was transformed into fourteen cotton plantations after acres of live oak trees were cleared for farm land and used for building American warships, including the famous USS Constitution, or "Old Ironsides." Although rice was the predominant crop along the neighboring Altamaha River, St. Simons was known for its production of long-staple cotton, which soon came to be known as Sea Island cotton. Between Ebos Landing the 1780s and the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65), St. Simons's plantation culture flourished. The saline atmosphere and the availability of cheap slave labor proved an ideal combination for the cultivation of Sea Island cotton. In 1803 a group of Ebo slaves who survived the Middle Passage and arrived on the west side of St. Simons staged a rebellion and drowned themselves. The sacred site is known today as Ebos Landing. One of the largest owners of land and slaves on St. Simons was Pierce Butler, master of Hampton Point Plantation, located on the northern end of the island. By 1793 Butler owned more than 500 slaves, who cultivated 800 acres of cotton on St. Simons and 300 acres of rice on Butler's Island in the Altamaha River delta. Butler's grandson, Pierce Mease Butler, who at the age of sixteen inherited a share of his grandfather's estate in 1826, was responsible for the largest sale of human beings in the history of the United States: in 1859, to restore his squandered fortune, he sold 429 slaves in Savannah for more than $300,000. The British actress and writer Fanny Kemble, whose tumultuous marriage to Pierce ended in divorce in 1849, published an eyewitness account of the evils of slavery on St. Simons in her book Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839 (1863). Another Retreat Plantation large owner of land and slaves on St. Simons was Major William Page, a friend and employee of Pierce Butler Sr. Before purchasing Retreat Plantation on the southwestern tip of the island in 1804, Page managed the Hampton plantation and Butler's Island. Upon Page's death in 1827, Thomas Butler King inherited the land together with his wife, Page's daughter, Anna Matilda Page King. King expanded his father-in-law's planting empire on St. Simons as well as on the mainland, and by 1835 Retreat Plantation alone was home to as many as 355 slaves. The center of life during the island's plantation era was Christ Church, Frederica. Organized in 1807 by a group of island planters, the Episcopal church is the second oldest in the Diocese of Georgia. Embargoes imposed by the War of 1812 (1812-15) prevented the parishioners from building a church structure, so they worshiped in the home of John Beck, which stood on the site of Oglethorpe's only St. Simons residence, Orange Hall. The first Christ Church building, finished on the present site in 1820, was ruined by occupying Union troops during the Civil War. In 1884 the Reverend Anson Dodge Jr. rebuilt the church as a memorial to his first wife, Ellen. The cruciform building with a trussed gothic roof and stained-glass windows remains active today as Christ Church. Civil War and Beyond The St. Simons Island Lighthouse outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 put a sudden end to St. Simons's lucrative plantation era. In January of that year, Confederate troops were stationed at the south end of the island to guard the entrance to Brunswick Harbor. Slaves from Retreat Plantation, owned by Thomas Butler King, built earthworks and batteries. Plantation residents were scattered—the men joined the Confederate army and their families moved to the mainland. Cannon fire was heard on the island in December 1861, and Confederate troops retreated in February 1862, after dynamiting the lighthouse to keep its beacon from aiding Union troops. Soon thereafter, Union troops occupied the island, which was used as a camp for freed slaves. By August 1862 more than 500 former slaves lived on St. Simons, including Susie King Taylor, who organized a school for freed slave children. But in November the ex-slaves were taken to Hilton Head, South Carolina, and Fernandina, Florida, leaving the island abandoned. After the Civil War the island never returned to its status as an agricultural community. The plantations lay dormant because there were no slaves to work the fields. After Union general William T. Sherman's January 1865 Special Field Order No. 15 —a demand that former plantations be divided and distributed to former slaves—was overturned by U.S. president Andrew Johnson less than a year later, freedmen and women were forced to work as sharecroppers on the small farms that dotted the land previously occupied by the sprawling plantations. By St. Simons Lumber Mills 1870 real economic recovery began with the reestablishment of the timber industry. Norman Dodge and Titus G. Meigs of New York set up lumber mill operations at Gascoigne Bluff, formerly Hamilton Plantation. The lumber mills provided welcome employment for both blacks and whites and also provided mail and passenger boats to the mainland. Such water traffic, together with the construction of a new lighthouse in 1872, designed by architect Charles B. Cluskey, marked the beginning of St. Simons's tourism industry. The keeper of the lighthouse created a small amusement park, which drew many visitors, as did the seemingly miraculous light that traveled from the top of the lighthouse tower to the bottom. The island became a summer retreat for families from the mainland, particularly from Baxley, Brunswick, and Waycross. The island's resort industry was thriving by the 1880s. Beachfront structures, such as a new pier and grand hotel, were built on the southeastern end of the island and could be accessed by ferry. Around this time wealthy northerners began vacationing on the island. Twentieth Century The St. Simons Island Pier and Village opening in 1924 of the Brunswick–St. Simons Highway, today known as the Torras Causeway, was a milestone in the development of resorts in the area. St. Simons's beaches were now easily accessible to locals and tourists alike. More than 5,000 automobiles took the short drive from Brunswick to St. Simons via the causeway on its opening day, paving the way for convenient residential and resort development. In 1926 automotive pioneer Howard Coffin of Detroit, Michigan, bought large tracts of land on St. Simons, including the former Retreat Plantation, and constructed a golf course, yacht club, paved roads, and a residential subdivision. Although the causeway had brought large numbers of summer people to the island, St. Simons remained a small community with only a few hundred permanent residents until the 1940s. The St. Simons Island outbreak of World War II (1941-45) brought more visitors and residents to St. Simons. Troops stationed at Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah; and nearby Camp Stewart took weekend vacations on the island, and a new naval air base and radar school became home to even more officers and soldiers. The increased wartime population brought the island its first public school. With a major shipyard for the production of Liberty ships in nearby Brunswick, the waters of St. Simons became active with German U-boats. In April 1942, just off the coast, the Texas Company oil tanker S. S. Oklahoma and the S. S. Esso Baton Rouge were torpedoed by the Germans, bringing the war very close to home for island residents. Due in large part to the military's improvement of the island's infrastructure during the war, development on the island boomed in the 1950s and 1960s. More permanent homes and subdivisions were built, and the island was no longer just a summer resort but also a thriving community. In 1950 the Methodist conference and retreat center Epworth by the Sea opened on Gascoigne Bluff. In 1961 novelist Eugenia Price visited St. Simons and began work on her first works of fiction, known as the St. Simons Trilogy. Inspired by real events on the island, Price's trilogy renewed interest in the history of Georgia's coast, and the novelist herself relocated to the island in 1965 and lived there for thirty-one years. St. Simons is also home to contemporary Georgia writer Tina McElroy Ansa. Since Epworth by the Sea 1980 St. Simons's population has doubled. The island's continued status as a vacation destination and its ongoing development boom have put historic landmarks and natural areas at risk. While such landmarks as the Fort Frederica ruins and the Battle of Bloody Marsh site are preserved and maintained by the National Park Service, and while the historic lighthouse is maintained by the Coastal Georgia Historical Society, historic Ebos Landing has been taken over by a sewage treatment plant. Several coastal organizations have formed in recent years to save natural areas on the island. The St. Simons Land Trust, for example, has received donations of large tracts of land and plans to protect property in the island's three traditional African American neighborhoods. Despite its rapid growth and development, St. Simons remains one of the most beautiful and important islands on the Georgia coast.