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Huge mountain style carpeted bedroom photo in Sacramento with beige walls

This custom maple cabinets were hand glazed along with the coffered ceiling. The mahogany island has a different stone than the perimeter granite to add visual interest. The 24 x 24 travertine tile floor visually expands the room. The large window over the sink adds natural light that plays against the different textures and colors.

Greg Hadley Photography The clients opted to use Ikea glossy white cabinets. Our crew assembled and installed the cabinetry on site. To provide an organic accent, we included walnut doors and open shelves. These pieces were purchased from a company that builds real wood veneer doors that fit over Ikea cabinet boxes. The island is sized to fit the space and provide adequate clearances around it for good traffic flow. The client requested the waterfall feature. The stone tops in the kitchen are Calacatta. Brass lamps above the sink (the original trim around the window was narrower, but once the client found these fixtures, we widened the trim to accommodate the lights.) Glass globe pendants. Brass lamp over built-in table. Glazed white brick subway backsplash tile. Black painted Pella window and door.

The front of the house features an open porch, a common feature in the neighborhood. Stairs leading up to it are tucked behind one of a pair of brick walls. The brick was installed with raked (recessed) horizontal joints which soften the overall scale of the walls. The clerestory windows topping the taller of the brick walls bring light into the foyer and a large closet without sacrificing privacy. The living room windows feature a slight tint which provides a greater sense of privacy during the day without having to draw the drapes. An overhang lined on its underside in stained cedar leads to the entry door which again is hidden by one of the brick walls.

The original breakfast room was removed and the corner corner squared off a the site of the new sink. The removal of the wall dividing the kitchen and dining areas allowed the kitchen to expand and accommodate the open concept floor plan. The result is an amazingly comfortable & beautiful space in which to cook & entertain.

This breathtaking whole-home renovation is a masterclass in balancing raw, natural materials with refined coastal elegance. Reclaimed wood, fieldstone, linen, cane, and soft blue hues weave a cohesive story from the soaring great room all the way up to the nursery — creating a home that feels both grounded in the land and kissed by the sea. Great Room The emotional heart of the home is a spectacular great room anchored by a floor-to-ceiling fieldstone fireplace with a hand-hewn reclaimed wood beam mantel and a herringbone brick firebox. Flanking the fireplace are generous built-in white shelving units with linen-backed interiors, beautifully styled with blue-and-white chinoiserie, ceramic vessels, and coastal curiosities. Overhead, a dramatic cathedral ceiling with exposed reclaimed wood trusses in a king-post configuration draws the eye upward and gives the space an almost barn-like grandeur — softened immediately by the warmth of crisp white walls and abundant natural light pouring in through a wall of French doors. Those doors open to a deck overlooking mature woodland, blurring the boundary between inside and out. The furnishings strike a balance that feels lived-in and luxurious at once. Two generous cream linen sofas face each other across a soft blue-gray upholstered square ottoman, while a pair of cognac saddle-leather swivel chairs add warmth and contrast. A stone pedestal side table, a rattan tray, and an oversized abstract seascape canvas above the mantel complete a room that is effortlessly inviting. Kitchen & Dining The open-plan kitchen and dining space flows seamlessly from the great room, united by the same reclaimed beam ceiling and wide-plank light oak hardwood floors. The kitchen itself is a dream: custom white inset cabinetry with brushed nickel hardware surrounds a showstopping island with a pale blue-gray painted base and a warm natural butcher block top — a choice that brings organic texture and approachability to an otherwise polished space. A handmade zellige-style light blue brick backsplash adds subtle artisanal character behind a professional-grade six-burner gas range framed by a tailored white custom range hood. Open glass shelves nearby display a curated collection of blue-and-white chinoiserie vases, adding personality and a collected feel. Clear glass-and-nickel pendant lanterns hang over the island, while a stunning crystal rod linear chandelier marks the dining area — a glamorous counterpoint to all the rustic texture in the room. Cane-back counter stools and a matching set of cane dining chairs in white keep the palette light, fresh, and connected to the home's coastal character. A stone arch passageway between the kitchen and adjacent rooms adds architectural drama and reinforces the home's commitment to natural materiality. Staircase & Entry The staircase is a design moment in its own right. A classic woven runner in gray with a crisp navy border brings pattern and polish to the oak treads, while a built-in window seat with a navy cushion at the landing creates a charming reading nook. A nautical-inspired abstract canvas on the entry wall sets the tonal palette for the upper level. Primary Bedroom Upstairs, the primary bedroom is a soft, serene retreat wrapped in a soothing dusty blue — walls and ceiling painted the same tranquil tone for an enveloping, cocoon-like effect. A white linen platform bed with an upholstered headboard sits beneath a wide horizontal panoramic cloud painting in a warm wood frame, evoking an open sky. The nightstands — in a soft white with brass ring pulls — are paired with ribbed ceramic table lamps that echo the room's quiet coastal sensibility. Blue-and-white gingham curtains on a brass rod, a soft white textured carpet, a cream leather recliner, and a slim brass reading floor lamp round out a room that feels simultaneously fresh and deeply restful. Blue embroidered bedding and a striped bolster pillow tie the whole palette together with gentle precision. Nursery A thoughtfully designed nursery shares the upper level's soft blue palette, with a classic white Jenny Lind spindle crib, a natural wood book rack, a wicker whale toy basket, and a gold circular mirror creating a space that is sweet without being saccharine. The same cloud painting above the bed and the soft blue walls create a dreamy, sky-like atmosphere perfectly suited for a young child.

This breathtaking whole-home renovation is a masterclass in balancing raw, natural materials with refined coastal elegance. Reclaimed wood, fieldstone, linen, cane, and soft blue hues weave a cohesive story from the soaring great room all the way up to the nursery — creating a home that feels both grounded in the land and kissed by the sea. Great Room The emotional heart of the home is a spectacular great room anchored by a floor-to-ceiling fieldstone fireplace with a hand-hewn reclaimed wood beam mantel and a herringbone brick firebox. Flanking the fireplace are generous built-in white shelving units with linen-backed interiors, beautifully styled with blue-and-white chinoiserie, ceramic vessels, and coastal curiosities. Overhead, a dramatic cathedral ceiling with exposed reclaimed wood trusses in a king-post configuration draws the eye upward and gives the space an almost barn-like grandeur — softened immediately by the warmth of crisp white walls and abundant natural light pouring in through a wall of French doors. Those doors open to a deck overlooking mature woodland, blurring the boundary between inside and out. The furnishings strike a balance that feels lived-in and luxurious at once. Two generous cream linen sofas face each other across a soft blue-gray upholstered square ottoman, while a pair of cognac saddle-leather swivel chairs add warmth and contrast. A stone pedestal side table, a rattan tray, and an oversized abstract seascape canvas above the mantel complete a room that is effortlessly inviting. Kitchen & Dining The open-plan kitchen and dining space flows seamlessly from the great room, united by the same reclaimed beam ceiling and wide-plank light oak hardwood floors. The kitchen itself is a dream: custom white inset cabinetry with brushed nickel hardware surrounds a showstopping island with a pale blue-gray painted base and a warm natural butcher block top — a choice that brings organic texture and approachability to an otherwise polished space. A handmade zellige-style light blue brick backsplash adds subtle artisanal character behind a professional-grade six-burner gas range framed by a tailored white custom range hood. Open glass shelves nearby display a curated collection of blue-and-white chinoiserie vases, adding personality and a collected feel. Clear glass-and-nickel pendant lanterns hang over the island, while a stunning crystal rod linear chandelier marks the dining area — a glamorous counterpoint to all the rustic texture in the room. Cane-back counter stools and a matching set of cane dining chairs in white keep the palette light, fresh, and connected to the home's coastal character. A stone arch passageway between the kitchen and adjacent rooms adds architectural drama and reinforces the home's commitment to natural materiality. Staircase & Entry The staircase is a design moment in its own right. A classic woven runner in gray with a crisp navy border brings pattern and polish to the oak treads, while a built-in window seat with a navy cushion at the landing creates a charming reading nook. A nautical-inspired abstract canvas on the entry wall sets the tonal palette for the upper level. Primary Bedroom Upstairs, the primary bedroom is a soft, serene retreat wrapped in a soothing dusty blue — walls and ceiling painted the same tranquil tone for an enveloping, cocoon-like effect. A white linen platform bed with an upholstered headboard sits beneath a wide horizontal panoramic cloud painting in a warm wood frame, evoking an open sky. The nightstands — in a soft white with brass ring pulls — are paired with ribbed ceramic table lamps that echo the room's quiet coastal sensibility. Blue-and-white gingham curtains on a brass rod, a soft white textured carpet, a cream leather recliner, and a slim brass reading floor lamp round out a room that feels simultaneously fresh and deeply restful. Blue embroidered bedding and a striped bolster pillow tie the whole palette together with gentle precision. Nursery A thoughtfully designed nursery shares the upper level's soft blue palette, with a classic white Jenny Lind spindle crib, a natural wood book rack, a wicker whale toy basket, and a gold circular mirror creating a space that is sweet without being saccharine. The same cloud painting above the bed and the soft blue walls create a dreamy, sky-like atmosphere perfectly suited for a young child.

Download our free ebook, Creating the Ideal Kitchen. DOWNLOAD NOW The homeowners built their traditional Colonial style home 17 years’ ago. It was in great shape but needed some updating. Over the years, their taste had drifted into a more contemporary realm, and they wanted our help to bridge the gap between traditional and modern. We decided the layout of the kitchen worked well in the space and the cabinets were in good shape, so we opted to do a refresh with the kitchen. The original kitchen had blond maple cabinets and granite countertops. This was also a great opportunity to make some updates to the functionality that they were hoping to accomplish. After re-finishing all the first floor wood floors with a gray stain, which helped to remove some of the red tones from the red oak, we painted the cabinetry Benjamin Moore “Repose Gray” a very soft light gray. The new countertops are hardworking quartz, and the waterfall countertop to the left of the sink gives a bit of the contemporary flavor. We reworked the refrigerator wall to create more pantry storage and eliminated the double oven in favor of a single oven and a steam oven. The existing cooktop was replaced with a new range paired with a Venetian plaster hood above. The glossy finish from the hood is echoed in the pendant lights. A touch of gold in the lighting and hardware adds some contrast to the gray and white. A theme we repeated down to the smallest detail illustrated by the Jason Wu faucet by Brizo with its similar touches of white and gold (the arrival of which we eagerly awaited for months due to ripples in the supply chain – but worth it!). The original breakfast room was pleasant enough with its windows looking into the backyard. Now with its colorful window treatments, new blue chairs and sculptural light fixture, this space flows seamlessly into the kitchen and gives more of a punch to the space. The original butler’s pantry was functional but was also starting to show its age. The new space was inspired by a wallpaper selection that our client had set aside as a possibility for a future project. It worked perfectly with our pallet and gave a fun eclectic vibe to this functional space. We eliminated some upper cabinets in favor of open shelving and painted the cabinetry in a high gloss finish, added a beautiful quartzite countertop and some statement lighting. The new room is anything but cookie cutter. Next the mudroom. You can see a peek of the mudroom across the way from the butler’s pantry which got a facelift with new paint, tile floor, lighting and hardware. Simple updates but a dramatic change! The first floor powder room got the glam treatment with its own update of wainscoting, wallpaper, console sink, fixtures and artwork. A great little introduction to what’s to come in the rest of the home. The whole first floor now flows together in a cohesive pallet of green and blue, reflects the homeowner’s desire for a more modern aesthetic, and feels like a thoughtful and intentional evolution. Our clients were wonderful to work with! Their style meshed perfectly with our brand aesthetic which created the opportunity for wonderful things to happen. We know they will enjoy their remodel for many years to come! Photography by Margaret Rajic Photography

This breathtaking whole-home renovation is a masterclass in balancing raw, natural materials with refined coastal elegance. Reclaimed wood, fieldstone, linen, cane, and soft blue hues weave a cohesive story from the soaring great room all the way up to the nursery — creating a home that feels both grounded in the land and kissed by the sea. Great Room The emotional heart of the home is a spectacular great room anchored by a floor-to-ceiling fieldstone fireplace with a hand-hewn reclaimed wood beam mantel and a herringbone brick firebox. Flanking the fireplace are generous built-in white shelving units with linen-backed interiors, beautifully styled with blue-and-white chinoiserie, ceramic vessels, and coastal curiosities. Overhead, a dramatic cathedral ceiling with exposed reclaimed wood trusses in a king-post configuration draws the eye upward and gives the space an almost barn-like grandeur — softened immediately by the warmth of crisp white walls and abundant natural light pouring in through a wall of French doors. Those doors open to a deck overlooking mature woodland, blurring the boundary between inside and out. The furnishings strike a balance that feels lived-in and luxurious at once. Two generous cream linen sofas face each other across a soft blue-gray upholstered square ottoman, while a pair of cognac saddle-leather swivel chairs add warmth and contrast. A stone pedestal side table, a rattan tray, and an oversized abstract seascape canvas above the mantel complete a room that is effortlessly inviting. Kitchen & Dining The open-plan kitchen and dining space flows seamlessly from the great room, united by the same reclaimed beam ceiling and wide-plank light oak hardwood floors. The kitchen itself is a dream: custom white inset cabinetry with brushed nickel hardware surrounds a showstopping island with a pale blue-gray painted base and a warm natural butcher block top — a choice that brings organic texture and approachability to an otherwise polished space. A handmade zellige-style light blue brick backsplash adds subtle artisanal character behind a professional-grade six-burner gas range framed by a tailored white custom range hood. Open glass shelves nearby display a curated collection of blue-and-white chinoiserie vases, adding personality and a collected feel. Clear glass-and-nickel pendant lanterns hang over the island, while a stunning crystal rod linear chandelier marks the dining area — a glamorous counterpoint to all the rustic texture in the room. Cane-back counter stools and a matching set of cane dining chairs in white keep the palette light, fresh, and connected to the home's coastal character. A stone arch passageway between the kitchen and adjacent rooms adds architectural drama and reinforces the home's commitment to natural materiality. Staircase & Entry The staircase is a design moment in its own right. A classic woven runner in gray with a crisp navy border brings pattern and polish to the oak treads, while a built-in window seat with a navy cushion at the landing creates a charming reading nook. A nautical-inspired abstract canvas on the entry wall sets the tonal palette for the upper level. Primary Bedroom Upstairs, the primary bedroom is a soft, serene retreat wrapped in a soothing dusty blue — walls and ceiling painted the same tranquil tone for an enveloping, cocoon-like effect. A white linen platform bed with an upholstered headboard sits beneath a wide horizontal panoramic cloud painting in a warm wood frame, evoking an open sky. The nightstands — in a soft white with brass ring pulls — are paired with ribbed ceramic table lamps that echo the room's quiet coastal sensibility. Blue-and-white gingham curtains on a brass rod, a soft white textured carpet, a cream leather recliner, and a slim brass reading floor lamp round out a room that feels simultaneously fresh and deeply restful. Blue embroidered bedding and a striped bolster pillow tie the whole palette together with gentle precision. Nursery A thoughtfully designed nursery shares the upper level's soft blue palette, with a classic white Jenny Lind spindle crib, a natural wood book rack, a wicker whale toy basket, and a gold circular mirror creating a space that is sweet without being saccharine. The same cloud painting above the bed and the soft blue walls create a dreamy, sky-like atmosphere perfectly suited for a young child.

A sculptural statement in its own right, this concrete-and-glass “Gallery House” was designed to showcase the owners’ art collection as well as the natural landscape. The architecture is truly one with its site: To the east, a sheltering wall echoes the curve of a crowded cul-de-sac, while to the west, the design follows the sweeping contours of the cliff—ensuring privacy while maximizing views. The architectural details demanded flawless construction: Windows and doors stretch floor-to-ceiling, and minimalist reveals define the walls, which “float” between perfect shadow lines in the long T-shape foyer. Ideal for entertaining, the layout fosters seamless indoor-outdoor living. Amenities include four pocketing glass walls, a lanai with heated floor, and a partially cantilevered multi-level terrace. The front courtyard sequesters a frameless glass entry. From here, sight lines stretch through the house to an infinity pool that hovers between sky and sea.

Industrial transitional English style kitchen. The addition and remodeling were designed to keep the outdoors inside. Replaced the uppers and prioritized windows connected to key parts of the backyard and having open shelvings with walnut and brass details. Custom dark cabinets made locally. Designed to maximize the storage and performance of a growing family and host big gatherings. The large island was a key goal of the homeowners with the abundant seating and the custom booth opposite to the range area. The booth was custom built to match the client's favorite dinner spot. In addition, we created a more New England style mudroom in connection with the patio. And also a full pantry with a coffee station and pocket doors.

With an ideal location in the Pacific Heights neighborhood of San Francisco, this dated Victorian residence had "beautiful bones" but had been sitting on the market for a year before being purchased with plans to revitalize the interior. Interior designer, Noel Han, explained, "Historical Victorian homes in this area often have beautiful architectural elements that I aim to preserve, but the floor plan and layout tend to be stuffy, not live-able and not light filled. Modern families want bright, light-filled, spacious rooms that take advantage of outdoor views and living spaces, and function well for storage, meals and entertaining." Preserving the architectural integrity and special features of the home was one of Han's goals but at the same time, she re-designed the space, moving walls and adding windows to create an open floorplan that flowed easily between the kitchen and outdoor living spaces. Where the range once stood in the original design, now an entire wall of windows provides panoramic views of the outdoors and fills the kitchen with light. Below the windows, Han designed a long bank of base cabinets with drawers to provide plenty of storage and work surface. Light now pours into the space even on foggy days. The range was moved to the opposite wall so that beautiful window views could be added to the kitchen. Han selected a palette of finishes with an eye toward creating a "soft color aesthetic". "White painted finishes are very popular right now but would have felt stark and cold in this space," she explained. "The French grey paint from Dura Supreme was a perfect complement for this vintage Victorian home, to create a classic color scheme". "This beautiful home already had hardware elements with a vintage brass finish, so I carefully selected antiqued, brushed brass hardware, plumbing and metal finishes to blend with the original elements," said Han. She continued, "The La Cornue French Range adds modern function with a French antique look." "I appreciate working with Dura Supreme cabinetry because of the quality of the cabinetry, fast delivery and the custom options. I'm able to create beautiful architectural details like the pull-out columns on both sides of the range and the curved mullion doors on the furniture hutch, and they offer a stunning palette of finishes and styles," explained Han. For the bath cabinetry, Han created a similar palette of finishes and styles to create a complementary look throughout the entire home. Product Details: Perimeter: Dura Supreme Cabinetry shown in the St. Augustine door style and Mullion Pattern #15 door style with a “Zinc” painted finish. Kitchen Island: Dura Supreme Cabinetry shown in the St. Augustine door style with a Clove stain and Black Accent finish on Cherry wood. For more information about Noel Han, Interior Designer, click to her website here www.atelnoel.com. For more information about Gilmans Kitchens and Baths, click to their website here www.gkandb.com. Photography by: Ned Bonzi www.nedbonzi.com. Request a FREE Dura Supreme Brochure Packet: http://www.durasupreme.com/request-brochure

Architect: Portuondo Perotti Architects Photography: Carlos Domenech “This is well detailed and consistent inside and out. It is a classic Mediterranean Revival in the Floridian tradition of Mizner.” This single-family residential home in Gables Estates, Coral Gables, Florida, successfully pays respect to the architecture of the Mediterranean and Renaissance Italian styles. From the use of courtyards to the high level of detailing, this project emphasizes the most picturesque and expressive qualities of these styles. The residence reflects the visions of two of Coral Gables’ first architects, who designed beautiful and timeless architecture in this garden city to become a lasting piece in the landscape. This project not only captures the breathtaking views of Biscayne Bay, but with timeless style and lush landscaping, it creates a centerpiece for the view from the bay to Coral Gables. The home is designed as a long gallery, with spaces connected by courtyards and public realms. Another large inspiration for this project was the idea of the garden and landscape. With Coral Gables as a garden city, landscape became an integral part of the conception and design. The durability of Marvin products, their ability to stand up to the South Florida climate, as well as the Marvin attention to detail and proportion, made them the perfect choice to employ in a project of such high standards. The range of products allowed the freedom of design to explore all possibilities and turn visions into reality. The result was a lasting piece of architecture that would reflect a level of detail in every part of its structure. MARVIN PRODUCTS USED: Marvin Round Top Window Marvin Ultimate Arch Top French Door Marvin Ultimate Swinging French Door Marvin Ultimate Venting Picture Window Marvin Casemaster

Given the efficient size of the home, the first floor is wide open. The traditional living room was eliminated leaving a dining room at the front, kitchen literally in the center of the space, and family room at the rear. Natural daylight floods in from the large front and back windows, along with light from the skylight atop of the centrally located stairwell. The kitchen cabinets, made from reclaimed wood, have naturalistic grooves align with adjacent cabinet fronts. http://www.kipnisarch.com Cable Photo/Wayne Cable http://selfmadephoto.com

Seamless connection between kitchen and family room showcases complementary custom-designed cabinetry. Rusty Reniers
Example of a mid-sized classic u-shaped dark wood floor and brown floor enclosed kitchen design in San Francisco with an undermount sink, recessed-panel cabinets, white cabinets, white backsplash, paneled appliances and a peninsula

www.davidkingsburyphoto.com
Transitional u-shaped kitchen photo in San Francisco with an undermount sink, recessed-panel cabinets, gray cabinets, white backsplash, stainless steel appliances and marble countertops

This kitchen took a tired, 80’s builder kitchen and revamped it into a personalized gathering space for our wonderful client. The existing space was split up by the dated configuration of eat-in kitchen table area to one side and cramped workspace on the other. It didn’t just under-serve our client’s needs; it flat out discouraged them from using the space. Our client desired an open kitchen with a central gathering space where family and friends could connect. To open things up, we removed the half wall separating the kitchen from the dining room and the wall that blocked sight lines to the family room and created a narrow hallway to the kitchen. The old oak cabinets weren't maximizing storage and were dated and dark. We used Waypoint Living Spaces cabinets in linen white to brighten up the room. On the east wall, we created a hutch-like stack that features an appliance garage that keeps often used countertop appliance on hand but out of sight. The hutch also acts as a transition from the cooking zone to the coffee and wine area. We eliminated the north window that looked onto the entry walkway and activated this wall as storage with refrigerator enclosure and pantry. We opted to leave the east window as-is and incorporated it into the new kitchen layout by creating a window well for growing plants and herbs. The countertops are Pental Quartz in Carrara. The sleek cabinet hardware is from our friends at Amerock in a gorgeous satin champagne bronze. One of the most striking features in the space is the pattern encaustic tile from Tile Shop. The pop of blue in the backsplash adds personality and contrast to the champagne accents. The reclaimed wood cladding surrounding the large east-facing window introduces a quintessential Colorado vibe, and the natural texture balances the crisp white cabinetry and geometric patterned tile. Minimalist modern lighting fixtures from Mitzi by Hudson Valley Lighting provide task lighting over the sink and at the wine/ coffee station. The visual lightness of the sink pendants maintains the openness and visual connection between the kitchen and dining room. Together the elements make for a sophisticated yet casual vibe-- a comfortable chic kitchen. We love the way this space turned out and are so happy that our clients now have such a bright and welcoming gathering space as the heart of their home!

Stuart Wade, Envision Virtual Tours The second-largest and most developed of Georgia's barrier islands, St. Simons is approximately twelve miles long and nearly three miles wide at its widest stretch (roughly the size of Manhattan Island in New York). The island is located in Glynn County on Georgia's coast and lies east of Brunswick (the seat of Glynn County), south of Little St. Simons Island and the Hampton River, and north of Jekyll Island. The resort community of Sea Island is separated from St. Simons on the east by the Black Banks River. Known for its oak tree canopies and historic landmarks, St. Simons is both a tourist destination and, according to the 2010 U.S. census, home to 12,743 residents. Early History The earliest St. Simons Island Village record of human habitation on the island dates to the Late Archaic Period, about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. Remnants of shell rings left behind by Native Americans from this era survive on many of the barrier islands, including St. Simons. Centuries later, during the period known by historians as the chiefdom era, the Guale Indians established a chiefdom centered on St. Catherines Island and used St. Simons as their hunting and fishing grounds. By 1500 the Guale had established a permanent village of about 200 people on St. Simons, which they called Guadalquini. Beginning in 1568, the Spanish attempted to create missions along the Georgia coast. Catholic missions were the primary means by which Georgia's indigenous Native American chiefdoms were assimilated into the Spanish colonial system along the northern frontier of greater Spanish Florida. In the 1600s St. Simons became home to two Spanish missions: San Buenaventura de Guadalquini, on the southern tip of the island, and Santo Domingo de Asao (or Asajo), on the northern tip. Located on the inland side of the island were the pagan refugee villages of San Simón, the island's namesake, and Ocotonico. In 1684 pirate raids left the missions and villages largely abandoned. Colonial History As Fort Frederica early as 1670, with Great Britain's establishment of the colony of Carolina and its expansion into Georgia territory, Spanish rule was threatened by the English. The Georgia coast was considered "debatable land" by England and Spain, even though Spain had fully retreated from St. Simons by 1702. Thirty-one years later General James Edward Oglethorpe founded the English settlement of Savannah. In 1736 he established Fort Frederica, named after the heir to the British throne, Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, on the west side of St. Simons Island to protect Savannah and the Carolinas from the Spanish threat. Between 1736 and 1749 Fort Frederica was the hub of British military operations along the Georgia frontier. A town of the same name grew up around the fort and was of great importance to the new colony. By 1740 Frederica's population was 1,000. In 1736 the congregation of what would become Christ Church was organized within Fort Frederica as a mission of the Church of England. Charles Wesley led the first services. In 1742 Britain's decisive victory over Spain in the Battle of Bloody Marsh, during the War of Jenkins' Ear, ended the Spanish threat to the Georgia coast. When the British regimen disbanded in 1749, most of the townspeople relocated to the mainland. Fort Frederica went into decline and, except for a short time of prosperity during the 1760s and 1770s under the leadership of merchant James Spalding, never fully recovered. Today the historic citadel's tabby ruins are maintained by the National Park Service. Plantation Era By the start of the American Revolution (1775-83), Fort Frederica was obsolete, and St. Simons was left largely uninhabited as most of its residents joined the patriot army. Besides hosting a small Georgia naval victory on the Fort Frederica River, providing guns from its famous fort for use at Fort Morris in Sunbury, and serving as an arena for pillaging by privateers and British soldiers, the island played almost no role in the war. Following the war, many of the townspeople, their businesses destroyed, turned to agriculture. The island was transformed into fourteen cotton plantations after acres of live oak trees were cleared for farm land and used for building American warships, including the famous USS Constitution, or "Old Ironsides." Although rice was the predominant crop along the neighboring Altamaha River, St. Simons was known for its production of long-staple cotton, which soon came to be known as Sea Island cotton. Between Ebos Landing the 1780s and the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65), St. Simons's plantation culture flourished. The saline atmosphere and the availability of cheap slave labor proved an ideal combination for the cultivation of Sea Island cotton. In 1803 a group of Ebo slaves who survived the Middle Passage and arrived on the west side of St. Simons staged a rebellion and drowned themselves. The sacred site is known today as Ebos Landing. One of the largest owners of land and slaves on St. Simons was Pierce Butler, master of Hampton Point Plantation, located on the northern end of the island. By 1793 Butler owned more than 500 slaves, who cultivated 800 acres of cotton on St. Simons and 300 acres of rice on Butler's Island in the Altamaha River delta. Butler's grandson, Pierce Mease Butler, who at the age of sixteen inherited a share of his grandfather's estate in 1826, was responsible for the largest sale of human beings in the history of the United States: in 1859, to restore his squandered fortune, he sold 429 slaves in Savannah for more than $300,000. The British actress and writer Fanny Kemble, whose tumultuous marriage to Pierce ended in divorce in 1849, published an eyewitness account of the evils of slavery on St. Simons in her book Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839 (1863). Another Retreat Plantation large owner of land and slaves on St. Simons was Major William Page, a friend and employee of Pierce Butler Sr. Before purchasing Retreat Plantation on the southwestern tip of the island in 1804, Page managed the Hampton plantation and Butler's Island. Upon Page's death in 1827, Thomas Butler King inherited the land together with his wife, Page's daughter, Anna Matilda Page King. King expanded his father-in-law's planting empire on St. Simons as well as on the mainland, and by 1835 Retreat Plantation alone was home to as many as 355 slaves. The center of life during the island's plantation era was Christ Church, Frederica. Organized in 1807 by a group of island planters, the Episcopal church is the second oldest in the Diocese of Georgia. Embargoes imposed by the War of 1812 (1812-15) prevented the parishioners from building a church structure, so they worshiped in the home of John Beck, which stood on the site of Oglethorpe's only St. Simons residence, Orange Hall. The first Christ Church building, finished on the present site in 1820, was ruined by occupying Union troops during the Civil War. In 1884 the Reverend Anson Dodge Jr. rebuilt the church as a memorial to his first wife, Ellen. The cruciform building with a trussed gothic roof and stained-glass windows remains active today as Christ Church. Civil War and Beyond The St. Simons Island Lighthouse outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 put a sudden end to St. Simons's lucrative plantation era. In January of that year, Confederate troops were stationed at the south end of the island to guard the entrance to Brunswick Harbor. Slaves from Retreat Plantation, owned by Thomas Butler King, built earthworks and batteries. Plantation residents were scattered—the men joined the Confederate army and their families moved to the mainland. Cannon fire was heard on the island in December 1861, and Confederate troops retreated in February 1862, after dynamiting the lighthouse to keep its beacon from aiding Union troops. Soon thereafter, Union troops occupied the island, which was used as a camp for freed slaves. By August 1862 more than 500 former slaves lived on St. Simons, including Susie King Taylor, who organized a school for freed slave children. But in November the ex-slaves were taken to Hilton Head, South Carolina, and Fernandina, Florida, leaving the island abandoned. After the Civil War the island never returned to its status as an agricultural community. The plantations lay dormant because there were no slaves to work the fields. After Union general William T. Sherman's January 1865 Special Field Order No. 15 —a demand that former plantations be divided and distributed to former slaves—was overturned by U.S. president Andrew Johnson less than a year later, freedmen and women were forced to work as sharecroppers on the small farms that dotted the land previously occupied by the sprawling plantations. By St. Simons Lumber Mills 1870 real economic recovery began with the reestablishment of the timber industry. Norman Dodge and Titus G. Meigs of New York set up lumber mill operations at Gascoigne Bluff, formerly Hamilton Plantation. The lumber mills provided welcome employment for both blacks and whites and also provided mail and passenger boats to the mainland. Such water traffic, together with the construction of a new lighthouse in 1872, designed by architect Charles B. Cluskey, marked the beginning of St. Simons's tourism industry. The keeper of the lighthouse created a small amusement park, which drew many visitors, as did the seemingly miraculous light that traveled from the top of the lighthouse tower to the bottom. The island became a summer retreat for families from the mainland, particularly from Baxley, Brunswick, and Waycross. The island's resort industry was thriving by the 1880s. Beachfront structures, such as a new pier and grand hotel, were built on the southeastern end of the island and could be accessed by ferry. Around this time wealthy northerners began vacationing on the island. Twentieth Century The St. Simons Island Pier and Village opening in 1924 of the Brunswick–St. Simons Highway, today known as the Torras Causeway, was a milestone in the development of resorts in the area. St. Simons's beaches were now easily accessible to locals and tourists alike. More than 5,000 automobiles took the short drive from Brunswick to St. Simons via the causeway on its opening day, paving the way for convenient residential and resort development. In 1926 automotive pioneer Howard Coffin of Detroit, Michigan, bought large tracts of land on St. Simons, including the former Retreat Plantation, and constructed a golf course, yacht club, paved roads, and a residential subdivision. Although the causeway had brought large numbers of summer people to the island, St. Simons remained a small community with only a few hundred permanent residents until the 1940s. The St. Simons Island outbreak of World War II (1941-45) brought more visitors and residents to St. Simons. Troops stationed at Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah; and nearby Camp Stewart took weekend vacations on the island, and a new naval air base and radar school became home to even more officers and soldiers. The increased wartime population brought the island its first public school. With a major shipyard for the production of Liberty ships in nearby Brunswick, the waters of St. Simons became active with German U-boats. In April 1942, just off the coast, the Texas Company oil tanker S. S. Oklahoma and the S. S. Esso Baton Rouge were torpedoed by the Germans, bringing the war very close to home for island residents. Due in large part to the military's improvement of the island's infrastructure during the war, development on the island boomed in the 1950s and 1960s. More permanent homes and subdivisions were built, and the island was no longer just a summer resort but also a thriving community. In 1950 the Methodist conference and retreat center Epworth by the Sea opened on Gascoigne Bluff. In 1961 novelist Eugenia Price visited St. Simons and began work on her first works of fiction, known as the St. Simons Trilogy. Inspired by real events on the island, Price's trilogy renewed interest in the history of Georgia's coast, and the novelist herself relocated to the island in 1965 and lived there for thirty-one years. St. Simons is also home to contemporary Georgia writer Tina McElroy Ansa. Since Epworth by the Sea 1980 St. Simons's population has doubled. The island's continued status as a vacation destination and its ongoing development boom have put historic landmarks and natural areas at risk. While such landmarks as the Fort Frederica ruins and the Battle of Bloody Marsh site are preserved and maintained by the National Park Service, and while the historic lighthouse is maintained by the Coastal Georgia Historical Society, historic Ebos Landing has been taken over by a sewage treatment plant. Several coastal organizations have formed in recent years to save natural areas on the island. The St. Simons Land Trust, for example, has received donations of large tracts of land and plans to protect property in the island's three traditional African American neighborhoods. Despite its rapid growth and development, St. Simons remains one of the most beautiful and important islands on the Georgia coast.

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